Information and Misinformation: Israel, Antisemitism, and the Jewish People

Judaism is a religion, and it is also a people, a culture, and a shared history. While religious practice is central for many Jews, Jewish identity is not solely defined by belief. Jews share a common ancestry, cultural traditions, and languages such as Hebrew, Ladino, and Yiddish that have existed for generations.

Throughout history, Jews have been viewed as a distinct people. Legal and cultural antisemitism targeted Jews based on ethnicity as well as religion, with discrimination persisting regardless of individual religious observance. Even before the Holocaust, many European and Middle Eastern countries enacted laws that discriminated against Jews as a group. Throughout the Ottoman Empire, as well as in Egypt, Iraq, and Iran, Jews historically lived under dhimmi status—a subordinate position in Muslim-majority societies. They faced legal and social restrictions, such as paying the jizya tax (a tax on non-Muslims) and being limited in certain public roles and privileges. In Russia, the Pale of Settlement confined Jews to specific regions and imposed severe restrictions on their movement and economic activity. These actions reflected the understanding that Jews were a separate ethnic group, not simply a religious community. This was most evident during the Holocaust, when Nazi Germany persecuted Jews as a racial group, regardless of their personal beliefs or level of religious practice.

Today, Jewish identity continues to be multifaceted. Some Jews practice Judaism as a religion, while others engage with Jewish culture through traditions, food, language, or a sense of shared peoplehood. Israel, the world’s only Jewish state, recognizes this dual identity, defining itself as both a Jewish and democratic state. Ultimately, Judaism is unique in that it functions as both a religion and a nation, shaping Jewish identity in ways that go well beyond faith.

Opposing Israeli government policies does not automatically make someone anti-Zionist or antisemitic. Like any country, Israel’s government can be subject to criticism, and individuals can disagree with its policies for a variety of reasons—without attacking the legitimacy of the state or the Jewish people (which does veer into anti-Zionism and antisemitism).

Peaceful opposition to government policy is a core aspect of the Israeli democracy. In the spring and summer of 2023, hundreds of thousands of Israelis took to the streets in weekly peaceful protests with regard to aspects of government policy, exercising their rights to free speech. The same occurred in September of 2024, with Israelis protesting on behalf of the hostages held by Hamas, demanding that the Israeli government reach an agreement to bring them home.

However, it is important to distinguish between legitimate criticism of the Israeli government, and harmful rhetoric that promotes anti-Zionism or antisemitism.

While Jews form the majority of the population of Israel, the country is home to a significant Arab population (20% of citizens), primarily Muslims and Christians.

Other groups include Bedouins (an indigenous people of the Negev desert in southern Israel), the Druze — a unique ethnic group with its own religious practices — as well as smaller ethnic and religious minorities.

The Jewish population itself is remarkably diverse, reflecting the global Jewish diaspora — Jews whose ancestors were displaced from the region over the course of many centuries, and who have now returned, particularly since the establishment of Israel in 1948. Major groups include Ashkenazi Jews from Europe; Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews from Spain, North Africa, and the Middle East; Ethiopian Jews; Russian-speaking Jews from the former Soviet Union; and smaller communities, such as the Bnei Menashe from India.

Beyond ethnic diversity, Israel’s Jewish population exhibits significant religious diversity. A large portion of the population identifies as secular, maintaining a cultural or national Jewish identity rather than a strictly religious one. Religious Jews range from Modern Orthodox to Haredi (ultra-Orthodox), each with varying levels of observance and influence in society. Additionally, Masorti/Conservative and Reform Jewish communities are growing, advocating for more pluralistic forms of Jewish practice.

The area that is now the State of Israel, the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and the Kingdom of Jordan has been inhabited for thousands of years by a variety of populations, including Jews, Arabs, Christians, and others. Jews have lived in the land now known as Israel for over 3,000 years, with a continuous presence dating back to ancient times.

Despite periods of exile, particularly after the Roman destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and the Bar Kokhba Revolt in 135 CE, Jewish communities have persisted in the area throughout history. The modern Zionist movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries led to increased Jewish immigration, culminating in the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948.

For centuries from the Ottoman conquest in the 1500s until their defeat in World War I, the area was controlled by the Ottoman Empire, which allowed Jews to live in relative peace in the area as second-class citizens known as dhimmi (a term for non-Muslims living in an Islamic state), with restricted rights and individual freedoms. From 1917 to 1948, the region was part of the British Mandate of Palestine, which had a mixed population of Jews, Arabs, and other groups. The land was sparsely populated in certain areas, but had established communities in others.